1. Introduction
Very
few scholars realise that Ernest Hemingway was the first writer to have ever
crafted a story in six words, long before individual experience was recognised
as a "genre" called a short-short story, a very short story, or a
micro-story. Very few critics are aware that many twentieth-century writers,
including numerous Nobel Prize-winning authors, gained fame and acclaim by
mimicking Hemingway's style. Similarly, few readers understand that style is
all Hemingway has ever possessed. So, to what extent can Ernest Hemingway's
style be translated?
2. Hemingway,
a Writer from Another Time
2.1. Hemingway
as a Hunter, in the Prehistoric Sense of the Term
Hemingway's true personality is best shown when compared
to John Steinbeck, his rival and disciple at the same time. Thus,
"Steinbeck suggested to us that we can either husband our resources,
maintain an intimate relationship with the Earth and its creatures, and learn
to care for each other in times of need, or perish in our blind egotisms,
selfish competitiveness, or self-hatreds. Steinbeck, the farmer. Hemingway
suggested that we must learn to master our environment, compete successfully in
the arenas of society and nature, and have the courage to face alone the
hardships that living entails, or our surroundings can victimise us, force us
to surrender our freedom, lose our identities, and enslave us with our fears
and illusions. Hemingway, the hunter."1] Hemingway finds himself most
comfortable on battlefields, in wrestling challenges, and in hunting and
fishing adventures…
2.2.
Hemingway's Fiction as a Stylised Biography
As his
characterisation clearly demonstrates, Ernest Hemingway's characters are drawn
from personal experiences, and most reflect Hemingway's generation and
post-World War society. Hemingway's characters value self-discipline and
self-control. To create realism and depth in his characters, Hemingway
incorporates genuine experiences with real places, events, and people. All his
works reference his own experiences. In this way, Hemingway's writings blur the
line between fiction and non-fiction. There is hardly any distinction between
them. Hemingway's works are often regarded as biographies centred around his
personal experiences and adventures. Even the lessons derived from his works
reflect his personal views without further elaboration. All these observations
about the content of Hemingway's works align with the essence of biography
writing, which is rich with real-life experiences, real people, real actions,
and everyday language.
Today,
Hemingway seems like a writer from another era, often celebrated for his works
and biographies that focus on war and masculinity. One might wonder if he still
holds any relevance in terms of content. His outlook on life now appears
outdated.[2] However, Hemingway remains referenced in high schools and
universities, though less often than before. His works are now appreciated more
for their style than their substance. Even those who did not consider Hemingway
a favourite mentioned his minimalist approach, his aim to reinvent language,
and his commitment to not telling everything.[3] Nowadays, people no longer see
him as a writer with a social message as they once did, especially after the
publication of works like "For Whom the Bell Tolls," "To Have
and Have Not," "The Fifth Column," and his 1937 Civil War
dispatches to the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA) while covering the
civil war in Spain, which challenges the image of a man consumed by himself,
women, and drink.[4]
3. Style
As Hemingway's Strongest
3.1. Hemingway's
Influence
Compared to his disciples, Hemingway does not seem to
have a serious question to defend or a social conscience to share beyond his
style. His widely recognised influence mainly lies in his stylistic
contributions. Without Hemingway, we might never have Raymond Carver, Denis
Johnson, Russell Banks, Tobias Wolff, James M. Cain, Albert Camus, or Jean-Paul
Sartre. Perhaps the most important value of Ernest Hemingway is found in what
he has left to his generation and those who follow.[5]
3.2.
Hemingway's Influence on Between-the-Wars American Writers
Of all the great American writers between the wars,
"the Three Kings,” as Richard Ford called Ernest Hemingway, William
Faulkner, and Francis Scott Fitzgerald in a 1983 essay (although John Dos
Passos can also be included among them), Hemingway is generally regarded as the
most prominent and influential of the "Lost Generation" of expatriate
writers who lived in Paris during the second decade of the twentieth century.
He was famously known among his contemporaries as "Papa Hemingway,"
since many writers willingly saw him as their mentor.
Even his
1954 Nobel Prize speech alluded to the paternal role he held among writers of
his generation and those that followed. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature "for his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently
demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he
has exerted on contemporary style."[7] John Steinbeck, the greatest
American writer and considered by Hemingway himself as a rival in his time,
once confirmed:
"In my time, Ernest Hemingway wrote a certain kind of
story better and more effectively than it had ever been done before. He was properly
accepted and acclaimed. He was imitated almost slavishly by every young writer,
including me, not only in America but in the world."[8]
Steinbeck
even wrote it plainly in the manuscript of his novel, East of Eden:
"He
wrote a special kind of story out of a special kind of mind and about special moods
and situations. When his method was accepted, no other method was admired. The method
or style not only conditioned
the stories but also the thinking of his generation. Superb as his method is, many
things cannot be said using it. The result
of his acceptance was that writers did not write about those things which could
not be said in the Hemingway manner, and gradually they did not think about them
either."[9]
3.3.
Hemingway's Influence on Between-the-Wars French Writers
No
other fiction writer had ever wielded such influence over his contemporaries.
Hemingway did not have to wait long to embody the charismatic figure that his
theory of writing, "The Iceberg Theory," essentially enabled him to
become; nor did he have to wait centuries to see the results of his hard work
embraced by prominent writers and Nobel Prize-winning fiction authors.
Ernest Hemingway's writing profoundly influenced not
only the new generation of American writers but also their French counterparts
in the 1930s, especially Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. The latter
recognised this stylistic link, noting the possible influence of Hemingway's
"The Sun Also Rises" on Camus's first novel.[10] He elaborated on
this point in a 1946 essay in "The Atlantic Monthly."
Sartre asserted that L’Étranger would never have
been what it is had Albert Camus not read The Sun Also Rises.[11] This
was corroborated by Wilfrid Sheed himself, who cleverly remarked that Albert
Camus's first novel, L’Étranger, was the finest Hemingway novel that
Camus wrote.[12] In an interview published in Les Nouvelles littéraires
in 1945, Albert Camus admitted that he had adopted Hemingway's style while
composing L’Étranger in 1942, intending to portray a man without
apparent conscience: “un homme sans conscience apparente”.[13]
4. The
Iceberg Theory, Hemingway's Philosophy of Fiction Writing
4.1. A
Revolution in Fiction Writing
"The Iceberg Theory," "the Iceberg
Principle," or "Theory of Omission" are three labels that refer
to Hemingway's fiction writing theory, which sparked a genuine stylistic
revolution in the early decades of the twentieth century for fiction by closing
the gap between writer and reader. This revolution compelled publishers to
refrain from accepting manuscripts written in styles other than Hemingway's.
Even John Steinbeck encountered this new publishing approach, but he had to
yield, as there was no alternative to secure publication. It is a writing style
that emphasises a clear, simple, and minimalist approach, avoiding explicit
descriptions of characters' feelings and refraining from verbal predictions of
action outcomes.
The most crucial parts of the story are not expressed
verbally. They lie beneath the surface, much like the bulk of an iceberg,
leaving only a small portion visible above. The essential elements of the story
remain unseen and implicit, much like the majority of an iceberg that remains
submerged. Hemingway writes only the surface narrative, enabling the reader to
infer the significant part that is left out. His writing is both economical and
understated. Not everything can be judged by appearance, just as an iceberg
cannot be assessed solely by the small visible tip protruding above the water.
Let us consider the opening scene of Ernest Hemingway's The Old
Man and the Sea:
"He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he
had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish."[14] This represents
the tip of the story that is told, the visible part. As for the real part,
which lies beneath the surface, it is as follows: "This fisherman is very
old, very poor, and quite lonely. He is leading a very difficult life, with
nothing to eat, nobody to help him in the bad luck that accompanied him for
eighty-four days." The reader must delve into the core of the story to
grasp this: "Nobody can accept such a fate. The old man should do
something to change his fate." This serves as an example of "The
Iceberg Theory" in action.
4.2. Main
Features of Hemingway's "Iceberg Theory"
4.2.1.
Functional Omission: The Tip of the Iceberg Versus the Bulk of
It
Inspired
by his journalistic career, Hemingway believed that removing unnecessary and
extraneous material made writing more compelling. As he moved into short story
writing, he kept this minimalist style, focusing on surface elements without
explicitly exploring the deeper themes.[15] This duality, involving both
surface features and those hidden beneath, would later be introduced to readers
as "The Iceberg Theory" of fiction writing, where the tip of the
iceberg signifies the surface, and the bulk beneath represents the hidden
elements and core themes of the story.
Throughout
Hemingway's writing, one can glimpse his attitudes and views on society as well
as the social issues of his time. Having lived through and participated in two
world wars and various minor conflicts (civil wars), he developed a tough
approach to life, a rough manner of living, and a bold style of expression. For
Hemingway, masculinity was the only mode of expression left in the absence of
the natural counterbalance of femininity, which had been sacrificed on the
battlefields. This is the central theme of "The Iceberg Theory”.
Everything in Hemingway's world is masculine, cruel, and tough.
"The
Iceberg Theory" is a term associated with Ernest Hemingway's writing
style. On one hand, it stems from his journalistic career, characterised by
simple language, clarity of ideas and images, concision, and an economy of
style. On the other hand, "The Iceberg Theory" also refers to the
functional omission of superfluous elements, such as -ly adverbs, transitions,
dialogue tags (e.g., "..."), and background information. "The
Iceberg Theory" embodies a minimalistic style that concentrates on two
primary aspects: the surface story the writer conveys, which represents the tip
of the iceberg, and the deeper meaning to which the writer alludes, the larger
portion of the iceberg, symbolising the bulk of the iceberg.[16]
Albert
Camus, a follower of Hemingway, adopted Hemingway's style in his existentialist
writings and connected the "Iceberg Theory" of writing to the Absurd
philosophy. In Camus's work, L’Étranger, for example, the main
character's actions (Meursault's) are the visible tip of the iceberg.
Meanwhile, the hidden bulk of the iceberg is represented by Camus's discussions
on the absurd, alienation, and death, which offer vital insight into the roots
of Meursault's emotional state.
Hemingway's
"Iceberg Theory" of writing is what he is internationally respected
and highly regarded for. His theory of fiction writing is rooted in the
principles of descriptive omission and stylistic compression. It allows the
reader to see only the tip of the iceberg (events, description, dialogue),
while the remaining seven-eighths of its mass (the dramatic feelings) remain
submerged. In practice, this means that Hemingway omits inner monologue, stream
of consciousness, and authorial commentary because he believes that description
and dialogue are sufficient and that such writing, if well-crafted, provides
the reader with a true sense of lived experience. In his description of this
theory of writing, Hemingway states that a clever writer gives the impression
that there is a topography down under the surface, where a character's feelings
and state of mind reside:[18]
"If
a writer of prose knows enough about what he is writing about, he may omit
things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough,
will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated
them. The dignity of movement of an iceberg is due to only
one-eighth of it being above water".[19]
"The
Iceberg Theory" is a stylistic concept that highlights the economy of
style through omission: parts of the story are concealed from the reader and
revealed later in subsequent scenes. That is, only the top of the iceberg is
visible in the northern part of the oceans; only the tip of the story is
exposed, while the actual narrative remains underwater, untold and unrevealed,
left for the reader to uncover if they wish to grasp the true meaning of the
story. In this context, two types of omissions can be employed. The first
involves unnecessary scenes, paragraphs, sentences, or words. This kind of
omission is more common in advanced stages of writing, as editors, reviewers,
and rewriters often utilise it. The second type of omission is known as
aesthetic omission or functional omission. It is used in the initial stages of
writing and the first drafts. Editors or reviewers do not employ it; instead,
it is utilised by the writers themselves. Functional omission aims to capture
the reader's attention, thus embodying the spirit of "the Iceberg
Theory."
4.2.2.
Simplicity
Ernest
Hemingway's works mirror his perspective on the writing craft. He is a renowned
prose author, holding a distinctive position in the literary world. In his
writings, he conveys a profoundly philosophical view of life, using simple
language and straightforward sentence structures. Simplicity is a central
feature of Hemingway's style. Three main forms of simplicity are evident in his
work: structural simplicity, which depends on monosyllabic words and short
sentences without subordination or complex connections; semantic simplicity,
which mainly avoids -ly adverbs and employs vocabulary accessible to a
third-grade level; and stylistic simplicity, which eschews complexity and
ornamentation.
Hemingway
worked as a journalist for the Kansas City Star in his early years when he
chose not to attend university. The newspaper's style guide taught him to
favour nouns and verbs over adjectives and adverbs. The nouns and verbs used do
not require any modifiers. In contrast, adjectives and adverbs are often
unnecessary and can lead to redundancy. Hemingway avoids using -ly adverbs, a
choice that has helped him simplify his writing. He employs 25% fewer adverbs
than the average amateur novelist.[20] Adverbs are words used to describe an
action (a verb), a state (a noun), or another adverb. Esteemed writers
typically avoid using adverbs. Instead, they select words that, by themselves,
encapsulate both reference and description. Hemingway is one such exemplary
figure. This approach helps prevent redundancy and awkwardness in the works of
Ernest Hemingway.
Hemingway's
preference for simplicity and clarity led him to use straightforward grammar.
Most of his works are built either on the “subject+verb+object" pattern to
convey information or on the “subject+verb+adjective” pattern to give
descriptions and details. However, Hemingway remains watchful against the
intrusion of compound words or adverbs, negative clauses or subordination, or
overly long sentences.
To engage the reader, Hemingway uses short sentences to
create rhythm and impact, drawing them into the text smoothly. Sometimes, he
combines two or more "short" sentences with "and" to
produce a broad, sweeping effect. Hemingway's longer sentences are usually
linked by "and." In other words, his long sentences often consist of
short sentences joined by "and," with monosyllabic or bisyllabic
words. As a result, he omits commas from compound sentences, contrary to traditional
punctuation rules, to evoke a breathless sensation. Ernest Hemingway recognised
that not every sentence should be short, nor should every sentence be lengthy.
"In the late summer of that year, we
lived in a house in a village overlooking the river and the plain, leading to
the mountains. The riverbed was strewn with pebbles and boulders, dry and white
under the sun, while the water flowed clearly and swiftly, taking on a blue hue
in the channels. Troops passed by the house and along the road, raising a cloud
of dust that settled on the leaves of the trees. The trunks of the trees were
dusty too, and the leaves fell early that year. We observed the troops marching
down the road, the dust rising, and the leaves, stirred by the breeze, falling
as the soldiers marched. Afterwards, the road lay bare and white, save for the
scattered leaves." [21]
"He was an old man who
fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream, and he had gone eighty-four days now
without taking a fish".
In this opening scene of
The Old Man and the Sea, Ernest Hemingway uses 27 words, of which 24 are
monosyllabic and only three are bisyllabic. This choice allows Hemingway's
writing to appeal to children and toddlers, as well as young people and the
elderly, engaging a much wider audience. Simple language can both attract a
broader readership and make the literary content more accessible.
There is a tool called the
Flesch-Kincaid score, which is available in Microsoft Word. This tool measures
the readability of a text. The shorter the text in terms of sentences and
words, the lower the readability score tends to be. This tool calculates the
average sentence length and the total number of syllables per word to assess
the simplicity of a text. Therefore, the shorter the sentences and words, the
lower the readability score. A score of 4 (four) or 3 (three) indicates that
the text is easily understood by readers in the fourth and third grades,
meaning it is suitable for pupils aged eight and nine, as well as for third-
and fourth-grade pupils. The Old Man and the Sea scores 3.9, The Sun Also Rises
scores 4.2 [22]
Hemingway
avoids complex words when simpler ones will do, and he does not use archaic
terms if everyday language suffices. Instead of 'to coexist', he prefers 'to
live together', and instead of 'extraordinary', he might choose 'strange' or
'wonderful'.
Hemingway's
style, when examined and summarised, proves to be simple, plain, direct, clear,
and energetic. In this way, Hemingway simplified the English language to
reflect everyday life, opposing the outdated literary conventions that once
displayed an aristocratic style, manner, and vocabulary to nineteenth-century
readers. Simplicity in Ernest Hemingway's works is clear through his use of
uncomplicated plots, straightforward language, and concise style, characterised
by monosyllabic words and short sentences.
Hemingway's writing style
is celebrated for its affirmative sentences, straightforward structures,
precise wording, and positive vocabulary. He refrains from using negative
sentences as they impede fluent reading. More often than not, the modes and
forms of his sentences are affirmative. Likewise, the meaning of his wording is
consistently positive on both syntactic and semantic levels.
Hemingway avoids using
negative sentences and instead prefers sentences in negative form. The
following sentence, "He is not a straightforward gentleman," has ten
syllables. Hemingway would rewrite it affirmatively as: "He is a cheater,"
with only five syllables. Likewise, the sentence "He is not a
straightforward gentleman" sounds the same as "He is a
straightforward gentleman," even though "Not" is both used and
heard in the first sentence; this happens because the subconscious mind
perceives the phrase without "Not," the negative that would typically
turn affirmation into negation. Therefore, Hemingway uses positive sentences,
as affirmation is the natural and instinctive language of the subconscious
mind.
Hemingway
contented himself with positive and affirmative sentences. However, he goes far
beyond affirming modes and forms by choosing positive, straightforward words
rather than negative, indirect ones. Consequently, when faced with two options,
Hemingway tends to select the more positive one. Consider the following
sentences: instead of "Our dishes are fat-free", he would use
"Our dishes are healthy"; instead of "She cannot resist buying
ice creams", he would use "She loves ice cream the way babies
do"; instead of saying "I stood motionless at hearing the news",
he would express it as "I felt paralysed at hearing the news."
4.3. Hemingway's
Style and Gender Identity:
Having witnessed the
horrors of the two world wars and the atrocities of the Spanish Civil War,
Ernest Hemingway developed a tough attitude towards life in the post-war era.
He perceives it as a life devoid of anima, an exclusively masculine existence.
This image is reflected in all of Hemingway's works across various dimensions:
themes, settings, characterisation, language, dialogue, and style.
As far as style is concerned,
Hemingway adopts a paratactic style, which is more masculine and assertive,
unlike the hypotatic style, which is more feminine and academic.[23] Let us compare these two patterns: Hypotaxis, as
in the following example, "Since you are a writer, changing the world is your
first duty," and Parataxis, as in "You write, you change something".
In these two sentences, the idea is the same. Still, the ways of expression
are quite different from each other, as they belong to two distinct trends on
the style continuum: the first is a vertical continuum of style, and the second
is a horizontal continuum of style.
The first
trend in the continuum of style, the vertical one, uses hypotaxis, where
subordinate clauses are placed alongside main clauses to convey a specific
meaning from the author. Sentences following this pattern are arranged
vertically, presenting information in a way that aligns with a particular
meaning through main or subordinate clauses. The second trend in the continuum
of style, the horizontal one, uses parataxis, with main clauses positioned
horizontally, free from subordination or hierarchy; only relative clauses are
allowed.
The most representative
writer of the horizontal spectrum of style is Ernest Hemingway, who redefines
masculinity through an economical, understated style he honed during his career
as a journalist and reporter for various newspapers. This style allows no room
for poetic language, emphasising facts and delaying emotions, keeping feelings
hidden beneath the surface, much like the larger part of an iceberg stays
underwater, showing only its tip.
For Hemingway, truth
represents masculinity, while emotion embodies femininity. This belief also
prevailed during the time of Napoleon the Great, who famously claimed that
"literature is ladies' work." For Hemingway, the brevity of style
signifies masculinity (in terms of wording, sentence structure, and choice of
words), whereas the length of style signifies femininity. Hemingway further
distinguished between two types of emotions: raw emotions (masculinity, characterised
by male energy and tough ways of expressing emotion) and imbued emotions
(femininity, characterised by female energy and tender ways of expressing
emotion). Without considering these concepts, it would be challenging for
scholars to study Hemingway stylistically and ensure their research is both
successful and esteemed.[25]
To better understand
Ernest Hemingway's style, comparing it with that of William Faulkner can be pretty
beneficial. Hemingway's style is asyndetic; he employs no connecting or
transitional phrases to join his sentences. Consequently, they appear
disconnected, standing alone. Hardly any subordination is used, implying that
his ideas are not well-linked. They are organised but not ranked in an
ecclesiastical manner. The message is clearly stated and stylistically
conveyed: "There is no hierarchy in life", "There is no meaning
in life. The reader is the one to give it to the world, not the author"...
William
Faulkner's style is polysyndetic, making connections and using subordinations
to rank his ideas and expressions. In his writing, there are main clauses
juxtaposed with subordinate ones, and his sentences are as lengthy as possible.
Occasionally, his sentences extend to one page or even two. The message is:
"There is meaning in life", "There should be a hierarchy in
life", and "The author should give meaning to the reader."
To
achieve the stylistic features outlined earlier, Ernest Hemingway made
meticulous revisions to his works before publishing them, cutting scenes,
removing bits of dialogue or description, and experimenting with new wording.
It is said that his novel, The Old Man and the Sea, was revised two hundred
times before he felt satisfied with it and handed it over to the publisher.
Ernest Hemingway places a high value on making his work accessible and
readable. Everything about his craft is calibrated that way, from short, simple
words to short, simple sentences. He would tirelessly revise his works prior to
publishing them. He was an obsessive reviser. He cares deeply about crisp facts
and rich imagery. For all these reasons, Hemingway was never "spontaneous”.
His obsessive revisionism is merely the tip of the iceberg that is Hemingway's
style itself: a style that demands exceptional reading and scholarly
translation.
5.
Characteristics of Hemingway's Style:
5.1. At
the Level of Morphology
In Arabic, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and
many prepositions are polysyllabic. A few prepositions, such as قَدْ، فِي، لا، بَلْ، إِذْ،
لَنْ، لَمْ، إِنْ، هَلْ، and لَوْ, are
monosyllabic, and a small number of verbs can also be monosyllabic when in the
imperative mood, as explained below:
Table
1.
Examples of the least syllabic Verbs in Arabic
|
الأفعال
الثلاثية الناقصة (صيغة
الأمر) |
الأفعال
الثلاثية الجوفاء (صيغة
الأمر) |
||
|
ادْعُ |
دَعَا |
سَلْ |
سَألَ |
|
اصْح |
صَحَا |
قُلْ |
قَالَ |
|
اسْقِ |
سَقَى |
مِلْ |
مَالَ |
|
اعْفُ |
عَفَا |
بُحْ |
بَاحَ |
|
اجْرِ |
جَرَى |
صِحْ |
صَاحَ |
|
انْهَ |
نَهَى |
قُدْ |
قَادَ |
|
افْدِ |
فَدَى |
سِرْ |
سَارَ |
Apart from the limited
list of words mentioned above, the Arabic language differs considerably from
English. Arabic follows its own logic based on rhythm and metre. Most words in
Arabic are derived from a linguistic root, which can be be syllabic (عَفَا، مَالَ) or
trisyllabic (كَتَبَ، أهْمَلَ), but a root
can never be monosyllabic. This shows that any claim claiming that Hemingway's
fictional works, when translated into Arabic, will retain their original word
structure, is based on false pretences and misleading assertions.
Simple syntax in
Hemingway's original works should be reflected in their translations.
Therefore, regarding the use of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,
translators of Hemingway's works are encouraged to follow the original author's
choices: a preference for nouns and verbs over adjectives and adverbs,
especially avoiding -ly adverbs. Instead, words that inherently reference and
describe are preferred.
Hemingway's sentences are
often brief. Even when they appear long, they are actually short sentences
linked by "and." Translators should adhere to this principle.
Hemingway's sentences typically employ simple grammar: the “subject +verb
+object" pattern for presenting information or the "subject +verb
+adjective" pattern to provide descriptions and details.
Translators who find
punctuation challenging can omit all the punctuation marks they are accustomed
to, except for the full stop (.) and question mark (?), since Ernest Hemingway
tends not to focus much on punctuation.
5.3.
At the Level of Semantics
Spontaneity and simplicity
are not limited to Hemingway's syntax but extend across all areas of
expression, including stylistics and semantics. Semantically, Hemingway uses
very simple, everyday words. However, simplicity alone does not suffice to
accurately reflect his original texts; positivism remains crucial. Positive
sentences, forms, phrasing, and vocabulary are highly expected in translations
of Hemingway's works. Furthermore, the structures and modes of his sentences
should conform to the affirmative, avoiding negative constructions.
5.4.
At the Level of Stylistics
Hemingway is a firm
supporter of masculinity, often at the cost of femininity. In doing so, he
implies that the two world wars disrupted the natural balance between genders.
Throughout his works, women are seldom depicted, while masculinity and
toughness are constantly present in his narratives.
Hemingway's works
encompass themes, settings, characterisation, language, dialogue, and style.
His prose is crafted to be read and appreciated for its masculine quality.
Translators should recognise this stylistic choice and convey it effectively to
the target readership in the target language.
6. Hemingway Translated: Arabic Translations as
Samples
Hemingway's works have consistently attracted the
interest of Arab translators. His renowned novel The Old Man and the Sea has
been translated into Arabic on thirty-four occasions. The first translation was
by Munir Baalabaki in 1954, and the most recent by Hamada Rajab in 2020. Here
is a comprehensive list of all the Arabic versions of Hemingway's The Old Man
and the Sea.
Munir Baalabaki’s (Beirut: Dar Al-Ilm Lilmalayine, first
edition, 1954), Saleh Jawdat’s (Cairo: Al-Dar Al-Qawmiya Littibaa Wannashr,
1962), Adnan Al-Mallouhi’s (Damascus: Dar Osama littibaa Wannashr Wattawzie,
1998), anonymous translation (Beirut: Dar Albahhar, 1999), Fadel Habib Mohsen’s
(Beirut: Al-Maktaba Al-Haditha littibaa Wannashr, Collection of Kounouz Rawaee
Alqassas Al’alamiya, first edition, 2000), Samir Ezzat Nassar’s (Amman:
Al-Ahlia Littibaa Wattawzie, 2002), Elie Muhanna’s (Cairo: Dar Al-Fikr Al’arabi
Littibaa Wannashr, first edition, 2003), anonymous translation (Amman: Dar
Oussama, 2006), Abdelhamid Zahid’s (Marrakesh: no publisher, first edition,
2007), anonymous translation (Cairo: Maktabat Alnafidha Littibaa Wattawzie,
2007), Ali Al-Qasimi’s (Casablanca: Manshurat Azzaman, first edition, 2008),
anonymous translation (Damascus: Dar Al-Hafiz Littibaa Wal’intaj Wannashr
Wattawzie, Collection of Riwayat Aladab Al’alami, first edition, 2008), Faiq
Ali’s (Damascus: Dar Samarkand Linnashr Wattibaa Wattawzie, first edition,
2009), Gabriel Wahba’s (Cairo: Ad-Dar Almasriya-Alloubnaniya, 2009), Samar
Samrani’s (Aleppo: Shuaa Linnashr Wa Al’ouloum, 2009), anonymous translation
(Amman: Dar Al-Walid Linnashr Wattawzie, first edition, 2009), anonymous translation
(Algeria: Kunoz Linnashr Wattawzie, first edition, 2010), anonymous translation
(Damascus/Cairo: Dar Alkitab Al’arabi Linnashr, first edition, 2012), anonymous
translation (Cairo: Ad-Dar Al-Masriya Lil’ouloum, 2015), Mahmoud Hosni’s
(Kuwait: Maktabat Afaq Linnashr Wattibaa Wattawzie, 2016), anonymous
translation (Riyadh: Dar Hakaya Linnashr Wattawzie, first edition, 2016), Ali
Kheder’s (Beirut: Dar Al-Rafidain Wattibaa Wannashr Wattawzie, first edition,
2017), anonymous translation (Beirut: Dar Alhikayat Littibaa Wannashr, first
edition, 2017), anonymous translation (Amman: Dar Khattab Linnashr Wattawzie,
first edition, 2017), anonymous translation (Amman: Dar Alam Althaqafa Linnashr
Wattawzie, 2017), Abdallah Adwan’s (Cairo: Dar Pharos Linnashr Wattibaa
Wattawzie, 2018), Fatima Taher’s (Cairo: Dar Al-Maaref, first edition, 2019),
anonymous translation (Damascus: Dar Altanawwue Althaqafi, first edition,
2019), anonymous translation (Cairo: Dar Al-Alf Kitab Linnashr Wattawzie,
2019), Hamada Rajab’s (Batna (Algeria): Al-Muthaqaf Linnashr Wattawzie, first
edition, 2020), ‘Atef ‘Amara’s (Cairo: Al-Maktab Al-Arabi Lilmaaref, no date),
Lana Abu Musleh's (Beirut: Collection of Qissas Aalamiya Liljamie, no date),
Ziad Zakaria's (Beirut: Dar Alsharq Al'arabi, no date), and Ahmed Muhammad
Hayder’s (Beirut: Al-Maktaba Al'ilmiya Aljadida, no date).[26]
The first Arabic translations of Hemingway's
novel appeared in the 1950s and 1960s, during the twentieth century, in
numerous editions by notable translators, who have since demonstrated two
primary approaches to translating The Old Man and the Sea. The first approach
is Munir Baalabaki's, recognised as the pioneer of literal literary translation
in contemporary Arab culture. The second is Egyptian poet Saleh Jawdat, a
trailblazer of free translation. These two translations have dominated for more
than half a century without significant competition. The original translation
of the novel was published two years after its initial release. In 1954, Munir
Baalabaki translated the story, the same year the book received the Nobel Prize
for Literature.[27]
If the fifties witnessed the absolute
dominance of Munir Baalabaki’s translation, the sixties ushered in the first
free translation of Hemingway's novel by Saleh Jawdat, who sought to
differentiate his work from Munir Baalabaki's translation in terms of strategy.
However, his pursuit of uniqueness led him to contradict Munir Baalabaki's
title, al-Shaykh wa-al-Baḥr, and even to conflict with the Arabic language
itself by selecting al-Ajuz wa-al-Bahr as the title for his translation. Saleh
Jawdat's initial translation was published by the National Publishing House in
1962, while the second edition was released by Dar Al-Hilal two years before
Saleh Jawdat died in 1974.[28]
Starting from the late 1990s of the twentieth
century, an unprecedented interest emerged in translating Ernest Hemingway's
The Old Man and the Sea into Arabic. Firstly, these were renditions intended to
align with the pioneers' earlier translations. Secondly, they were expected to
provide translational alternatives that embody a specific approach. Thirdly,
they aimed to correct previous lapses; fourthly, they were to be undertaken by
qualified translators.
A thorough examination of the thirty-four Arabic
translations revealed that they were of poor quality. They faced considerable
difficulties in understanding Hemingway's writing philosophy, narrative style,
and word choice, among other aspects. The causes of these shortcomings might
sometimes stem from an implicit pursuit of commercial success, compliance with
a publishing company's request, or even a personal desire to establish oneself
as a translator. Only one, Ali al-Qasimi's translation of The Old Man and the
Sea, stood out as a notable version, setting an excellent example for future
Arab translators eager to translate more of Ernest Hemingway's works.
Ali Al-Qasimi was the only translator among the five
Arab translators who distinguished the Virgin in the text from the rest of the
virgins in the Christian context as the Virgin of Cobre. He is also regarded as
the most skilled translator out of the thirty-four, having overcome the
challenges of segmentation, untranslation, misunderstanding, misinterpretation,
and thus mistranslation. The sentences and paragraphs of his translation, in
terms of segmentation, were notably equivalent to those of the original.
Moreover, his obvious errors, such as misuse of punctuation marks and other
simple syntactic mistakes, do not indicate functional differences in any aspect
of the situational context. Being originally a novelist and a short story
writer and, above all, a fan of Hemingway,[30]
7. Conclusion
Ernest Hemingway's
distinctive literary style—marked by simplicity, characterised by omission, and
distinguished by a deliberate avoidance of superfluous ornamentation—presents
both opportunities and challenges for translation. As this study has
demonstrated, his "Iceberg Theory" revolutionises fiction writing
through functional omission, structural economy, and a preference for direct,
affirmative language. These stylistic choices, deeply rooted in Hemingway's
philosophy of positivism and masculine identity, create a unique narrative
voice that resonates across cultures while resisting complete translation into
other languages.
An analysis of Arabic
translations of The Old Man and the Sea, which includes thirty-four different
versions, highlights the tension between Hemingway's translatability and
untranslatability. While his minimalist syntax and everyday vocabulary may seem
adaptable, the cultural and stylistic subtleties within his prose (such as
gendered language, rhythmic brevity, and implied subtext) often demand creative
compromises from translators. The large number of Arabic retranslations
emphasises both the lasting appeal of Hemingway's work and the inherent
challenges in capturing his "iceberg" effect, where the unsaid is as
significant as the said.
Ultimately, Hemingway's
style goes beyond language boundaries through its universal themes, yet it
remains tied to the quirks of English in its delivery. Future research could
explore how digital tools or adaptive translation strategies might bridge these
gaps, maintaining Hemingway's voice while respecting the expressive constraints
of target languages. His legacy, however, survives as a testament to the power
of style, not just as a means of storytelling, but as the story itself.
On July 2, 1961, Hemingway
shot himself dead, yet questions about his legacy still resonate. One of these
legacies is Hemingway's style, which has shaped the history of creative
writing, not only in the twentieth century but for all time. Hemingway revolutionised
the stylistics of fiction, and any indifference to his contribution to
literature diminishes his unparalleled talent. Consequently, translating
Hemingway's works presents a significant challenge for translators. The
translation of his words and worlds poses a substantial obstacle that
translators are expected to confront, tackle, and overcome.
[1] Benson, Jackson J.: "The Writer Who Said What Hemingway Couldn't”. Los Angeles Times, April 9, 1989. P. 15.
[2] Watson, William Braasch (Ed.): "War Dispatches to NANA (North-Atlantic Newspaper Alliance)". The Hemingway Review 7, 1988. pp. 114-18.
[3] Ulin, David L. The Writing Life. New York: Riverhead Books, 2015. Quoted on p. 47. Watson, William Braasch (Ed.): "War Dispatches to NANA (North-Atlantic Newspaper Alliance)". The Hemingway Review 7, 1988. pp. 114-18.
[4] The speech of the Swedish Academy announcing Ernest Hemingway as the recipient of the Nobel Prize. October 28, 1954.
[5] George, Stephen K., and Barbara A. Heavilin: John Steinbeck and His Contemporaries. (Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2007). p. 58.
[6] Benson. Op. Cit. p. 15.
[7] Sartre, Jean-Paul “Explication de L’Étranger”. Situations I. (Paris: Gallimard, 1947).
[8] Sartre, Jean-Paul: "American Novelists in French Eyes." The Atlantic Monthly 178, 1946. pp. 114-18.
[9] Sheed, Wilfrid: "Desperate Character", The New York Review of Books, May 12, 1977. pp. 31-34 (p. 34).
[10] Interview with Camus in Les Nouvelles littéraires, 1945," (oc ii, 658) cited in: Ben Stoltzfus, "Hemingway's Influence on Camus: The Iceberg as Topography". (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2015). p. 169.
[11] Hemingway, Ernest: The Old Man and the Sea. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952). p. 3.
[12] Yoaxin, Chang: A Survey of American Literature. (Tianjin: Nankai University Press, 2003).
[13] Aldridge, John W.: "Afterthoughts on the Twenties and The Sun Also Rises". In New Essays on The Sun Also Rises. (Cambridge U 1987), pp. 125-26.
[14] Stoltzfus, Ben: "Hemingway's Influence on Camus: The Iceberg as Topography". (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2015), p. 169.
[15] Hemingway, Ernest: Death in the Afternoon. (New York: Scribner, 1932). p. 192.
[16] Blatt, Ben: Nabokov's Favourite Word is Mauve: The Literary Quirks and Oddities of Our Most-loved Authors. (London: Simon and Schuster, 2017).
[17] Hemingway, Ernest: A Farewell to Arms. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929). p. 3.
[18] Subhi Khalil, Ghusoon:"Parataxis, Hypotaxis, Style and Translation". Majallat Kullīyat al-Tarbiyah al-Asāsīyah, Issue 68, 2011. pp. 9-17.
[19] Strychacz, Thomas: "In Our Time, Out of Season". The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). pp. 59-60.
[20] Chung, Henry: "In His Time: How Ernest Hemingway Defines and Promotes Masculinity in In Our Time", The University of British Columbia, July 2019, seen on 15/30/2023:
https://artsone.arts.ubc.ca/
[21] Raïhani, Mohamed Saïd: Translation Quality Assessment of the Arabic Versions of English Literature. 1st edition. 2025. pp. 63-85.
